Alumni Essay Example for Free

Alumni Essay GENERAL BACKGROUND Information system (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filters, and process, create, and distribute data. The study bridges business and computer science using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline. Computer information system (CIS) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes functionality over design. Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and decision making. In a broad sense, the term is used to refer not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes. Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, computer systems, and business processes. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the end use of information technology. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes. Alter argues for advantages of viewing an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans and/or machines perform work (processes and activities) using resources to produce specific products and/or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to processing (capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying) information. As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decision making and action. NEED OFINFORMATION SYSTEM Information systems help provide structure and access to information. Since libraries build, manage, and maintain information systems, librarians and LIS students are often propelled onto the front lines of interactions between library users and technology. But what do librarians need to know to best meet their patrons needs? Information expert Ratzan uses plain language, humor, and everyday examples like baseball and arithmetic to make sense of information systems . He also explores their characteristics, uses, abuses, advantages, and shortcomings for your library. Fun exercises and appendices are provided to illustrate key points in the book and measure understanding. You can be a technophobe and still learn about systems and subsystems to represent, organize, retrieve, network, secure, conceal, measure, and manage information. This expert sourcebook addresses both theoretical and practical issues, and is complete with exercises, examples, terms, and charts that help clarify concepts to make your information system a success. ADVANTAGES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM Information systems have significantly transformed the way business is conducted. In todays society it would be pretty difficult to find an organization that does not use some form of technology, automation or information system to help run its operational and daily transactional processes. Computer technology has become so highly integrated in the business environment it is often hard to remember a time when organizations operated without it. The benefits technology offers are very valuable and this is the primary reason why many businesses opt to invest in information systems. Increased Productivity When automation takes over some of the burden of the more mundane and routine tasks, the rapid speed increases productivity. In addition employees are free to work on other important tasks that require human thinking. The time computer information systems frees up also gives both management and their staffs the ability to have time to brainstorm and come up with new and innovative ideas since the burden of some of the everyday tasks are lifted. Less Redundancy and Better Data Integrity Computer information systems can be programmed to have amazing ability to eliminate duplicates, point out inconsistencies and merge data together to make it more manageable. This heightens the ability for higher degrees of accuracy and efficiency. Data integrity means the data is more reliable due to the capabilities of automation. Inputting data into information systems where it can be sorted, filed and processed is highly efficient. Long gone are the days of filing cabinets, missing papers, misfiled documents and other important details. If information is needed, all it takes is a few clicks of the mouse or a few works typed in and all the information immediately pops right up. Instead of having separated computer systems for different parts of a business, modern information systems allow systems to be streamlined. No longer do different staff members have to input and file the same information for their own purposes and needs. Instead data goes into one central place and IT personnel set up user privileges which are typically on a need to know basis and employees can access which areas of the information system they need to perform their jobs. Initially investing in computer information systems is a large investment, but when strategically planned through proper system analysis, the investment in information systems can pay off handsomely over the long term. The key is to think of the organizations mission, objectives and overall business plan and ensure the implemented information system meets these goals. With proper planning a company can simultaneously maximize profit while decreasing overhead costs. The possibilities of using information systems in business are endless. While  there are some challenges to overcome when making the transition to new kinds of automation, with strategic thinking, good technical planning and an overall willingness to embrace change through technology, there are many terrific advantages of integrating information systems in any organization. ALUMNI INFORMATION SYSTEM Alumni information system is an example of web application which is under the information systems. It helps an academic institution in tracking its alumni. Also, it helps the alumni to communicate with the institution through the use of the internet. It also helps the alumni to get updated with the latest news and upcoming events of the institution. This application can easily be accessed through the use of the internet which will be very useful to the alumni because they can keep in touch with the institution even if they do not visit the school. This application can be very useful especially to those alumni who are now living abroad because they can still get connected with their fellowmen and the institution. Nowadays, computer has infiltrated all the aspects of our society. The computer is most likely one of the great technological mechanism for future change. It can now simply make our works easier and lighter. With this great thing it won’t be more useful without the computer’s software. Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions, often broken into two major categories: system software that provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer, and application software which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT WORK A website requires attractive design and proper arrangement of links and images, which enables a browser to easily interpret and access the properties of the site. Hence it provides the browser with adequate information and functionality about the organization, community, network etc. This sites use to view information of alumni, job vacancy details. The current happening information showing in the page. The alumni are old students are registering their information in the  department. Here the department organizing the any activities is inserting in the site. This web site is totally full of information and details of person joined with that institute. This project is to modify, add store data of each and every individual. ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION Introduction A to Z Computech is one of the foremost technical and well experienced Computer Institute. It offers Diploma Courses, Higher Diploma Courses, Post Graduate Diploma Courses, Certified Courses, Individual Courses, Project Works, Implant Training, Soft Skill Training, Web Designing, and Software Development in various streams and Aims to provide Quality Computer Education. The Institute was established in June 1996 in Chennimalai, headed by J. Senthil Kumar, The Managing Director, and a visionary with 18 years of experience in the Field of IT. The Institute was certified by International Standard Organization (ISO 9001:2008). A to Z Computech aim to provide superior Computer Education in convivial and artistic environment with disciplined, Dedicated and Corporate regulations. Vision Vision is to bring up the computer skills, Innovative ideas and talents of each and every individual student from rural area and make them to participate in team for the Development of our nation. By providing Quality, time bound and cost-efficient Computer Education. Mission [The ultimate goal of A to Z Computech is to have its own identity in the Computer Training industry as a most trusted trainer in all aspects and a one stop solution for high quality, time bound and cost effective Institute. A to Z Computech is committed to maintain 100% student’s satisfaction by certain values Deep Integrity Ensuring Code of Conduct. Precious Timekeeping Highest level of Training Potential Leadership with an Energetic Team Sufficient Infrastructure for anytime Expansion Continuous Growth 100% Success Leadership and Team A to Z Computech are an Institute with diverse talents skills. Our Institute offers a Job Oriented Courses, College Project Works (All UG PG Courses), In Plant Training in which talented, creative motivated students can be employed by us. A to Z Computech dont just acknowledge hard work achievements; A to Z Computech reward it groom it. A to Z Computech have an experienced team of ambitious, vibrant, young professionals having ability to update with latest trends requirements of students. A to Z Computech teams passion is to take challenges and to deliver to Students expectations. ORGANIZATION OF THE PROJECT REPORT This project report is subdivided into six main chapters and some appendix. Chapter I â€Å"INTRODUCTION† includes the introduction about information system, need of information system, advantages of information system, alumni information system, about the organization and organization of the project report. Chapter II â€Å"SYSTEM ANALYSIS† includes description of the Existing System and proposed system. It’s employed to provide a systematic proposed method and principles to achieve the objectives of the report. Chapter III â€Å"SYSTEM SPECIFICATION† includes hardware and software requirements, front end and backend details. Chapter IV â€Å"SYSTEM DESIGN† includes system and data flow diagram, module description, database, input and output design. Chapter V â€Å"TESTING IMPLEMENTATION† includes testing plan and schedule, implementation details. Chapter VI â€Å"CONCLUSION FUTURE WORK† includes the conclusion and general evaluation of the project and suggestion of the future work.

The use of Microwave Remote Sensing

The use of Microwave Remote Sensing INTRODUCTION Microwave remote sensing at wavelengths ranging from 1 cm to 1 m has gained a lot of importance over the plast decade for a wide range of scientific applications with the availability of active radar imaging systems. Its potential in spatial applications use has been scientifically established in various sectors like forestry, agriculture, land use and land cover, geology and hydrology. A variety of applications have been carried out world over using microwave data like discrimination of crop types, crop condition monitoring, soil moisture retrieval, delineation of forest openings, estimation of forest above ground biomass, forest mapping; forest structure and fire scar mapping, geological mapping, monitoring wetlands and snow cover, sea ice identification, coastal windfield measurement, wave slope measurement, ship detection , shoreline detection, substrate mapping, slick detection and general vegetation mapping (Kasischke et al., 1997). There is an emerging interest on microwave remote sensing is, as microwave sensors it can image a surface with very fine resolution of a few meters to coarse resolution of a few kilometers. They provides imagery to a given resolution independently of altitude, limited only by the transmitter power available. Fundamental parameters like polarization and look angle can be varied to optimize the system for a specific application. SAR imaging is independent of solar illumination as the system provides its own source of illumination. It can operate independently of weather conditions if sufficiently long wavelengths are chosen. It operates in a band of electromagnetic spectrum different from the bands used by visible and infrared (IR) imageries. Microwave applications in Forestry Applications of microwave remote sensing in forestry ha ve also been reported during the recent past. Recent reviews on the application of radar in forestry show that SAR systems have a good capability in discriminating various types of (tropical) forest cover using multi-temporal and multi-frequency SAR data (Vander Sanden, 1997; Varekamp, 2001; Quinones, 2002; Sgrenzaroli, 2004). These studies showed that the biomass dependence of radar backscatter varies as a function of radar wavelength, polarization and incidence angle. Also recent studies have demonstrated that synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can be used to estimate above-ground standing biomass. To date, these studies have relied on extensive ground-truth measurements to construct relationships between biomass and SAR backscatter (Steininger, 1996; Rignot et al., 1997). Many studies demonstrated the use of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing to retrieve biophysical characteristics from forest targets (Richards, 1990). Although radar backscatter from forest is influenced by their structural properties (Imhoff, 1995), earlier studies derived useful relationships between backscattering coefficients and the above-ground biomass (Baker et., 1994; Le Toan et al., 1992; Dobson et el., 1992; Imhoff; 1995). These relationships may provide a method of monitoring forest ecosystems which play such a vital role in carbon storage and NPP. Microwave remote sensing has the advantage of all weather capability coverage overcoming the persistent problem of cloud cover in satellite images like in optical data. Optical remote sensing is being used very successfully in various applications related to earth resources studies and monitoring of the environment. However, optical remote sensing is not suitable for all atmospheric conditions. It cannot penetrate through clouds and haze. In many areas of the world, the frequent cloud conditions often restrain the acquisition of high-quality remotely sensed data by optical sensors. Thus, radar data has become the only feasible way of acquiring remotely sensed data within a given time framework because the radar systems can collect Earth feature data irrespective of weather or light conditions. Due to this unique feature of radar data compared with optical sensor data, the radar data have been used extensively in many fields, including forest-cover identification and mapping, discrimi nation of forest compartments and forest types, estimation of forest stand parameters and monitoring of forests. In areas where vegetation cover is dense, it visually covers the underlying formation and it is very difficult to detect structural limiting the use of optical sensors. Radar however, is sensitive enough to topographic variation that it is able to discern the structural expression reflected in the tree top canopy, and therefore the structure may be clearly defined on the radar imagery. Based on this background, the current thesis work has been carried out to explore the potential of microwave data in addressing core areas of tropical forestry viz., vegetation classification , a bove ground biomass estimation etc., and to provide the users/researchers a meaningful data base of SAR applications in tropical forestry, specifically over the India region. Research questions: Which SAR wavelength/frequency band is appropriate for vegetation classification in tropical forests? To what extent above ground biomass can be measured in tropical forests? Which frequency band and polarization are suitable for above ground biomass estimation? Is there any enhancement in vegetation classification with polarimetric / interferometric data than stand alone amplitude data? Research hypothesis: Based on this background,the previous studies and earlier mentioned Rresearch questions, we understand that the backscatter increases with the increase in above ground biomass and depends on wavelength bands, polarizations used and on the study area, topographic variations and species composition. So, the present study attempts to derive the application potential of airborne and space borne SAR data in the quantification of the forest resources in tropical regions like India, both as a complementary and supplementary role to optical datasets. Different techniques such as Regression analysis, multi-sensor fusion, texture measures and interferometric coherence characterize different biomass ranges of the test sites and classification of major land cover classes. This study would facilitate scope for future research in tropical regions to explore the potentials of SAR data in land cover classification and above ground biomass estimation using the polarimetric and interferometric techniq ues. OBJECTIVES: Based on this background, the present study aims at the following objectives: Vegetation type classification using polarimetric and interferometric SAR data. Forest above-ground biomass estimation using multi-frequency SAR data and ground inventoried data. Vegetation classification is necessary to understand the diversity of species in a given area which gives above ground biomass with measured parameters. Hence, vegetation classification enhances the estimation of the above ground biomass. Forest biomass is a key parameter in understanding the carbon cycle and determining rates of carbon storage, both of which are large uncertainties for forest ecosystems. Accurate knowledge of biophysical parameters of the ecosystems is essential to develop an understanding of the ecosystem and their interactions, to provide input models of ecosystem and global processes, to test these models and to monitor changes in ecosystem dynamics and processes over time. Thus, it is a useful measure for assessing changes in forest structure, comparing structural and functional attributes of forest ecosystems across a wide range of environmental conditions. Knowing the spatial distribution of forest biomass is important as the knowledge of biomass is required for calculating the sources and sinks of carbon that result from converting a forest to cleared land and vice versa, to know the spatial distribution of biomass which enables measurement of change through time. Field sampling is the most followed conventional method for vegetation type classification. The identification of different species in field yields good results in the estimation of the above ground biomass. It is very time consuming, expensive and very complicated. With the use of multiple sensors, varied data collection and interpretation techniques, remote sensing is a versatile tool that can provide data about the surface of the earth to suit any need (Reene et al, 2001). Remote sensing approach for vegetation classification is cost effective and also time effective. Though the identification of the tree species is possible only from the aerial imagery, major forest types can be identified from the airborne and the spaceborne remote sensing data. Visual image interpretation provides a feasible means of vegetation classification in forests. The image characteristics of shape, size, pattern, shadow, tone and texture are used by interpreters in tree species identification. Phenological correlations are useful in tree species identification. Changes in the appearance of trees in different seasons of the year some times enable discrimination of species that are indistinguishable on single dates. The use of multi-temporal remote sensing data enabl es the mapping of the different forest types. SAR has shown its potential for classifying and monitoring geophysical parameters both locally and globally. Excellent works were carried out on the classification using several approaches such as polarimetric data decomposition (Lee et al., 1998), knowledge based approaches considering the theoretical backscatter modeling and experimental observations ( Ramson and Sun , 1994) ; Backscatter model-related inversion approaches ( Kurvonen et al., 1999), neural networks and data fusion approaches ( Chen et al., 1996). Dong et al. (2001) have shown that the classification accuracy of 95% for the vegetation classes could be achieved through the segmentation and classification of the SAR data using Gaussian Markov Random Field Model (GMRF). Many methods have been employed for classification of polarimetric SAR data, based on the maximum likelihood (ML) (Lee et al. 1994), artificial neural network (NN) (Chen et al. 1996, Ito and Omatu, 1998), support vector machines (SVMs) (Fukuda et al. 2002), fuzzy method (Chen et al. 2003, Du and Lee 1996), or other approaches (Kong et al. 1988, Lee and Hoppel 1992, van Zyl and Burnette 1992, Cloude and Pottier 1997, Lee et al. 1999, Alberqa 2004) Among these methods, the ML classifier (Lee et al. 1994) can be employed for obtaining accurate classification results, but it is based on the assumption of the complex Wishart distribution of the covariance matrix. Assessing the total aboveground biomass of forests (biomass density when expressed as dry weight per unit area at a particular time) is a useful way of quantifying the amount of resource available for all traditional uses. It either gives the quantity of total biomass directly or the quantity by each component (e.g., leaves, branches, and bole) because their biomass tends to vary systematically with the total biomass. However, biomass of each component varies with total biomass by forest type, such as natural or planted forests and closed or open forests. For example, leaves contribute about 3-5% and merchantable bole is about 60% of the total aboveground biomass of closed forests. Many researchers have developed various methods based on field inventory and remote sensing approaches for the estimation of above ground biomass (Kira and Ogawa, 1971). Traditionally, field-measured approach is considered as the most accurate source for above-ground biomass estimation. It has been converted to volume, or biomass, using allometric equations that are based on standard field measurements (tree height and diameter at breast height). Different approaches, based on field measurement (Brown et al. 1989, Brown and Iverson 1992, Schroeder et al.. 1997, Houghton et al., 2001, Brown, 2002); remote sensing (Tiwari 1994, Roy and Ravan 1996, Tomppo et al., 2002, Foody et al., 2003, Santos et al., 2003, Zheng et al., 2004, Lu, 2005); and GIS (Brown and Gaston 1995) have been applied for AGB estimation. Traditional techniques based on field measurement are the most accurate ways for collecting biomass data. A sufficient number of field measurements is a prerequisite for developing AGB estimation models and for evaluating the AGB estimation results. However, these approaches are often time consuming, labour intensive, and difficult to implement, especially in remote areas and are generally limited to 10-year intervals. Also, they cannot provide the spatial distribution of biomass in large areas. For the above reasons, the perspectives of using remote sensing techniques to estimate forest biomass have gained interest. Remote sensing data available at different scales, from local to global, and from various sources, optical to microwave are expected to provide information that could be related indirectly, and in different manners, to biomass information. The possibility that aboveground forest biomass might be determined from space is a promising alternative to ground-based methods (Hese et al., 2005). The advantages of remotely sensed data, such as in repetivity of data collection, synoptic view, digital format that allows fast processing of large quantities of data, and the high correlations between spectral bands and vegetation parameters, make it the primary source for large area AGB estimation, especially in areas of difficult access. Therefore, remote sensing-based AGB estimation has increasingly attracted scientific interest. In general, AGB can be estimated using remotely sensed data with different approaches, such as multiple regression analysis, K nearest-neighbour, and neural network (Roy and Ravan 1996, Nelson et al. 2000a, Steininger 2000, Foody et al. 2003, Zheng et al. 2004), and indirectly estimated from canopy parameters, such as crown diameter, which are first derived from remotely sensed data using multiple regression analysis or different canopy reflectance models (Wu and Strahler 1994, Woodcock et al. 1997, Phua and Saito 2003, Popescu et al. 2003). Spectral signatures or vegetation indices are often used for AGB estimation in optical remote sensing. Many vegetation indices have been developed and applied to biophysical parameter studies (Anderson and Hanson 1992, Anderson et al. 1993, Eastwood et al. 1997, Lu et al. 2004, Mutanga and Skidmore 2004). Vegetation indices have been recommended to remove variability caused by canopy geometry, soil background, sun view angles, and atmospheric conditions when measuring biophysical properties (Elvidge and Chen 1995, Blackburn and Steele 1999). Radar remote sensing has potential to provide information on above ground biomass. The information content of SAR data in terms of the retrieval of biomass parameters will be assessed based on an understanding of the underlying scattering mechanisms, which in turn are derived from observations and modeling results. For this purpose, an analysis of data acquired by multiple frequency, incidence and polarisation systems and by interferometric systems is carried out. It has been proved that the sensitivity to biomass parameters differ strongly at different frequencies, polarisations and incidence angles. In general, long wavelength SAR backscatter (P and L band) is more sensitive to forest biomass than shorter wavelength C-band backscatter and the relationships saturate at certain biomass levels ( Imhoff 1995b). The strength of the relationships and the saturation levels are dependent on the type of forest being analysed (Ferrazoli et al. 1997). The saturation levels for the estimation of above ground biomass depend on the wavelengths (i.e. different bands, such as C, L, P), polarization (such as HV and VV), and the characteristics of vegetation stand structure and ground conditions. C-band can measure forestry biomass up to app. 50 tons/ha, L-band can measure up to 100 tons/ha and P-band can measure up to 200 tons/ha (Floyd et al., 1998). The combination of multiple channels and polarizations provides greater advantage for estimating total biomass (Harry Stern, 1998). RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY: The present study is the part of Radar Imaging satellite Joint Experiment Programme (RISAT-JEP) for forestry applications undertaken by Forestry and Ecology Division of National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), as a pilot campaign with specific objectives of above ground biomass estimation and vegetation type classification using airborne DLR (German Aerospace Center) carrying ESAR (Experimental Synthetic Aperture Radar) data for Rajpipla (Gujarat) study site and space borne ENVISAT (Environmental Satellite) carrying Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) data for three test sites viz., Rajpipla (Gujarat), Dandeli (Karnataka) and Bilaspur (Chattisgarh), India. SCOPE OF THE STUDY: The specific objectives of the present study are above ground biomass estimation and vegetation type classification using airborne DLR (German Aerospace Center) carrying ESAR (Experimental Synthetic Aperture Radar) data for Rajpipla (Gujarat) study site and space borne ENVISAT (Environmental Satellite) carrying Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) data; ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Satellite) carrying Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) for three test sites viz., Rajpipla (Gujarat), Dandeli (Karnataka) and Bilaspur (Chattisgarh), India. Different techniques such as Regression analysis, multi-sensor fusion, texture measures and interferometric coherence were used to characterize different biomass ranges of the test sites and to classify the major land cover classes using spaceborne C-band ENVISAT-ASAR data and L-band ALOS- PALSAR data. Polarimetric signatures, polarimetric decompositions, multi-sensor fusion techniques etc. were used for the classification of different vegetation types in the Rajpipla study area using the airborne DLR-ESAR data. The study has its uniqueness and gains importance in the application potential of SAR interferometry over tropical regions like India, both in terms of an alternate/substitute to optical data sets due to persisting cloud cover and to the lack of availability of any earlier scientific work over the study region. This study is useful for the applications of to be launched Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT) in 2010. The study has amply demonstrated the application potential of airborne and space borne SAR data in the quantification of the forest resources in tropical regions like India, both as a complementary and supplementary role to optical datasets. The study would facilitate future research in tropical regions to explore the potentials of SAR data in land cover classification and above ground biomass estimation using the polarimetric and interferometric techniques. LITERATURE SURVEY: During the last decade, many potential applications of SAR in different frequency bands have been studied for forestry applications using data acquired by both airborne and space-borne systems. Various techniques like Polarimetry, Interferometry and Polarimetric-Interferometry enhanced the use of SAR data in forestry applications. The backscatter from vegetation is used to infer information about amplitude data for forest cover mapping and estimation of above ground biomass in regenerating forests. Use of SAR polarimetric data delineated vegetation classes within the forest and also enhanced the capability in estimating the above ground biomass. The use of repeat pass interferometric data enables to calculate the forest stand height and also used for the land cover classification. The emerging Pol-InSAR technique is used to derive the three dimensional forest structures. Forest cover maps were prepared for the boreal, temperate and tropical forests using SAR data. Forest was separated from non-forest regions using multi-temporal C-band ERS SAR data on the test sites of United Kingdom, Poland and Finland (Quegan et al., 2000). The study applied a threshold value to separate forest from other classes. Tropical rainforest of Borneo was mapped from SIR-B data of different incidence angles (Ford and Casey, 1988). Different vegetation covers along with wetlands and clear-cut areas were distinguished. Forest cover mapping was done with JERS-1 SAR data on the coastal regions of Gabon (Simard et al., 2000). The study used decision tree method utilizing both radar amplitude and texture information. Forest cover map was prepared for Southern Chittagong using JERS-1 SAR data (Rahman and Sumantyo, 2007) and the study separated forest, degraded forest, shrubs, coastal plantations, agriculture, shrimp-farms, urban and water. Although radar backscatter from forest is influenced by their structural properties (Imhoff, 1995a), many studies have demonstrated useful relationships between backscattering coefficients and the areal density of above-ground biomass within particular types of forest (Baker et., 1994; Le Toan et al., 1992; Dobson et al., 1992; Imhof et al; 1995b). Many airborne and spaceborne SAR systems have been used to carry out a large amount of experiments for investigating the forest ecosystems. The airborne systems, such as the NASA/JPL AIRSAR, DLR-ESAR, etc., operating at P, L and C band, has been flown over many forest sites (Zebker et al., 1991; Le Toan et al, 1992; Beaudoin et al., 1994; Rignot et al.; 1994; Skriver et al., 1994; Ranson et al., 1996). The experiments of the Canadian CV-580, as well as the European airborne system, mainly operating at C and X band also have been carried out in North America and Europe (Drieman et al., 1989; Hoekman, 1990). Spaceborne SAR is being used from regional to global monitoring in a periodic basis. The spaceborne systems, such as the Seasat SAR, SIR-B, SIR-C/X-SAR and ERS-1, ERS-2, ENVISAT-ASAR, RADARSAT etc., were used for investigations of boreal, temperature and sub-tropical forestry test sites (Ford et al., 1988; Dobson et al., 1992; Ranson et al., 1995; Stofan et al., 1995; Rignotet al., 1995). These experiments and studies have shown that radar is sensitive to forest structural parameters such as diameter at breast height (dbh) and tree mean height including above-ground biomass (Dobson et al., 1992; Pulliainen et al., 1994; Skriver et al., 1994; Ferrazzoli et al., 1995; Ranson et al., 1996). Earlier studies has shown the potential of radar data in estimating AGB (Hussin et al. 1991, Ranson and Sun 1994, Dobson et al. 1995, Rignot et al. 1995, Saatchi and Moghaddam 1995, Foody et al. 1997, Harrell et al. 1997, Ranson et al. 1997, Luckman et al. 1997, 1998, Pairman et al. 1999, Imhoff et al. 2000, Kuplich et al. 2000, Castel et al. 2002, Sun et al. 2002, Santos et al. 2003, Treuhaft et al. 2004). Kasischke et al. (1997) reviewed radar data for ecological applications, including AGB estimation. Lucas et al. (2004) and Kasischke et al. (2004) reviewed SAR data for AGB estimation in tropical forests and temperate and boreal forests, respectively. Different wavelength radar data have their own characteristics in relating to forest stand parameters. Backscatter in P and L bands is highly correlated with major forest parameters, such as tree age, tree height, DBH, basal area, and AGB (Leckie 1998). In particular, SAR L-band data have proven to be valuable for AGB estimation (Sad er 1987, Luckman et al. 1997, Kurvonen et al. 1999, Sun et al. 2002). However, low or negligible correlations were found between SAR C-Band backscatter and AGB (Le Toan et al. 1992). Beaudoin et al. (1994) found that the HH return was related to both trunk and crown biomass, and the VV and HV returns were linked to crown biomass. Harrell et al. (1997) evaluated four techniques for AGB estimation in pine stands using SIR C- and L-Band multi-polarization radar data and found that the L-Band HH polarization data were the critical elements in AGB estimation. Kuplich et al. (2000) used L-band JERS-1/SAR data for AGB estimation of regenerating forests and concluded that these data had the potential to estimate AGB for young, regenerating forests. Sun et al. (2002) found that multi-polarization L-Band SAR data were useful for AGB estimation of forest stands in mountainous areas. Castel et al. (2002) identified the significant relationships between the backscatter coefficient of JERS- 1/SAR data and the stand biomass of a pine plantation. The study observed the improvement in AGB estimation results for young stands, compared to estimation for old stands. Santos et al. (2002) used JERS-1 SAR data to analyse the relationships between backscatter signals and biomass of forest and savanna formations. This study concluded that forest structural-physiognomic characteristics and the radars volume scattering, double bounce scattering are two important factors affecting these relationships. The saturation levels of backscattering co-efficient with respect to AGB depend on the wavelengths (i.e. different Bands, such as C, L, P), polarization (such as HV and VV), and the characteristics of vegetation stand structure and ground conditions. Luckman et al. (1997) found that the longer-wavelength (L-Band) SAR image was more suitable to discriminate different levels of forest biomass up to a certain threshold, indicating that it is suitable for estimating biomass of regenerating forests in tropical regions. Austin et al. (2003) indicated that forest biomass estimation using radar data may be feasible when landscape characteristics are taken into account. The radar backscattering coefficient is correlated with forest biomass and stem volume (Le Toan et al. 1992, Israelsson et al. 1994, Kasischke et al. 1994, Dobson et al. 1995). The sensitivity of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data to forest stem volume increases significantly as the radar wavelength increases (Israelsson et al. 1997). The imaging process makes SAR suitable for mapping parameters related to forest biomass, like stem volume (Baker et al, 1999; Fransson et al, 1999; Hyyppa et al, 1997; Israelsson et al., 1997; Kurvonen et al, 1999; Pulliainen et al, 1996), total growing stock (Balzter et al, 2000; Schmullius et al, 1997), LAI (Imhoff et al, 1997), or above ground net primary productivity (Bergen et al, 1998). Le Toan et al., (1992) used multi-polarisation L- and P-band airborne radar data, and found that the dynamic range of the radar backscatter corresponded highly with forest growth stages and is maximum at P-band HV polarization. The analysis of P-band data indicated a good correlation between the radar backscatter intensity and the main forest parameters including trunk biomass, height, age, diameter at breast height (dbh), and basal area. Dobson et al., (1992) showed an increasing range of backscatter with changing biomass from C to P-band, as well as higher biomass levels at which backscatter relationships to biomass saturate. Hoekman, (1990) found poor relationships between X- and C-band backscatter and volume and other stand parameters. The spaceborne systems, such as the Seasat SAR, SIR-B, SIR-C/X-SAR and ERS-1, ERS-2, JERS, ENVISAT-ASAR and recently ALOS-PALSAR etc. were used for investigations of boreal, temperature and sub-tropical forestry test sites (Ford et al., 1988; Dobson et al., 1992; Ranson et al., 1995; Stofan et al., 1995; Rignot et al., 1995). These experiments and studies have shown that radar is sensitive to forest structural parameters including above-ground biomass (Dobson et al., 1992; Pulliainen et al., 1994; Skriver et al., 1994; Ferrazzoli et al., 1995; Ranson et al., 1996). Kasischke et al., (1997) reviewed radar data for ecological applications, including AGB estimation. It is being reported in literature that the radar backscatter in the P and L bands is highly correlated with major forest parameters, such as tree age, tree height, DBH, basal area, and AGB. In particular, SAR L-Band data have proven to be valuable for AGB estimation (Sader, 1987; Luckman et al., 1997; Kurvonen et al., 1999; Sun et al., 2002). Kuplich et al., (2000) used JERS-SAR data for AGB estimation of regenerating forests and concluded that these data had the potential to estimate AGB for young, regenerating forests. Luckman et al., (1997) found that the longer-wavelength (L-Band) SAR image was more suitable to discriminate different levels L-Band backscatter shows no sensitivity to increased biomass density after a certain threshold, such as 100 tons ha-1, indicating that it is suitable for estimating biomass of regenerating forests in tropical regions. The radar backscattering coefficient is correlated with forest biomass and stem volume (Le Toan et al. 1992; Israelsson et al., 1994; Kasischke et al., 1994, Dobson et al., 1995). The sensitivity of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data to forest stem volume increases significantly as the radar wavelength increases (Israelsson et al., 1997). The imaging process makes SAR suitable for mapping parameters related to forest biomass, like stem volume (Baker et al., 1999; Israelsson et al., 1997; Pulliainen et al., 1996), total growing stock (Balzter et al., 2000; Schmullius et al., 1997), LAI (Imhoff et al., 1997), or above ground net primary productivity (Bergen et al., 1998). The dependency of backscatter on above ground biomass was observed and related to the penetration of the radiation into the canopy and interaction with the trunk, where most of the volume, therefore, biomass of the vegetation is concentrated (Sader 1987, Le Toan et al. 1992, Dobson et al. 1992). HV polarization in longer wavelengths (L or P band) is the most sensitive to above ground biomass (Sader 1987, Le Toan et al. 1992, Ranson et al. 1997a) because it originates mainly from canopy volume scattering (Wang et al. 1995), trunk scattering (Le Toan et al. 1992) and is less affected by the ground surface (Ranson and Sun 1994). As forest backscatter in different wavelengths and polarizations originate from separate layers of a canopy, the use of multiple channels or multi-step approaches (e.g., Dobson et al. 1995) could be used to estimate total above-ground biomass (Kasischke et al. 1997). Sun and Ranson (1994) estimated biomass in mixed conifer temperate forest upto 250 Mg/ha. Band ratios (HH/HV and VV/VH) were also used for the above ground biomass estimation. However, Dobson et al. (1995) considered these band ratios too simplistic (as the corresponding backscatter will be much higher for the few tall trees than for the many short ones), although effective in estimating biomass at higher ranges. In spite of this, a combination of bands and polarizations in a multi-step approach made possible the mapping of biomass in a mixed temperate forest upto 250 Mg/ha (Dobson et al. 1995). Establishing a strong link between backscatter and forest variables is an important part of the successful estimation of forest biomass from backscatter. Models are often used to explain the relationship between forest variables, scattering mechanisms and SAR configuration parameters (Richards 1990, Kasischke and Christensen 1990). Another approach is the use of statistical analysis, where forest variables are related to SAR backscatter by regression models (Sader 1987, Le Toan et al. 1992, Rauste et al. 1994). The combination of the two approaches, in most cases to assess the results of the predicted biomass or backscatter via regression (Ranson and Sun 1994, Ferrazzoli et al. 1997, Franson and Israelson 1999). Statistical procedures such as stepwise regression analysis were also used to determine the best set of bands and pola

The Bubonic Plague in Europe :: essays research papers

The Black Death in Europe 1 Abstract The Black Death in Europe was one of the continents worth natural disasters. The bubonic plague wiped out nearly 60% of the population, causing changes that took many years to recover. The effects of art are astonishing. Every person and social class were affected, the church lost prestige and power, as did the doctors and physicians. Politics changes for a short time and the nobility lost wealth. Fear was wide spread, and people lost trust of their families. No one could escape the carnage this illness brought, if they tried, they succeeded in bringing it with them. The Black Death in Europe 2 Knox (page 15) states that the population losses were staggering, between1347 and 150 nearly 1 to of 3 people where gone. Venetian records stated that the death rates escalated close to 500-600 deaths a day, 60% of Venice’s population was gone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As with medical professions the clergy suffered great losses as well. Theirs was an occupational hazard; entering the home of the sick, doctors were at greater risk of catching the illness themselves. The clergy had to give the dieing their last rights and preside over the burials, this made for their demise.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As indicated by Knox (page12) those who were learned hade some ideas about what was causing the disease such poisonous vapors released by constellation alignments. They recommended that no fat meant should be eaten at all and bathing was hazardous, these suggestions only made to make people more vulnerable to the plague. The only real action taken that worked was confinement, cities walled themselves off from incoming ships and would quarantine and ill persons house.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With the population losses the labor forse was reduced, there was a greater need for crafts men and skilled laborers. Guilds began opening their doors to other skilled peoples, because when and skilled man died his whole family usually got the plague as well, this mad openings for others. Towns began to advertise higher wages to those artisans and those with skills. If the miller died and the sickens was in his home, then the miller family passed away also, this left none to mill the grain, therefore towns were in need of help.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Black Death in Europe 3 According to Marchione di Coppo Stefani (1370-1380) people looked to the doctors and the clergy for answers and advice, neither had the answers nor the cure. â€Å" In the year of the Lord 1348 the was a great pestilence in the city of Florence.

Civil war Essay -- essays research papers

Causes & Results of the Civil War The Civil War, in U.S. history, was a conflict that pitted the Northern states of the American Union against the Southern states. The war raged for 4 years (1861-65) and was marked by some of the fiercest military campaigns of modern history. Large armies were involved in large movements, and entire populations were engaged in supporting the war efforts of both sides. The war had international impact, not only because of the growing international stature of the United States, but also because war threatened world access to the South's cotton. Britain and France had particular interest in the war's outcome, but other nations were also affected by it. The chief and immediate cause of the war was slavery. Southern states, including the 11 states that formed the Confederacy, depended on slavery to support their economy. Southerners used slave labor to produce crops, especially cotton. Although slavery was illegal in the Northern states, only a small proportion of Northerners actively opposed it. The main debate between the North and the South on the eve of the war was whether slavery should be permitted in the Western territories recently acquired during the Mexican War (1846-1848), including New Mexico, part of California, and Utah. Opponents of slavery were concerned about its expansion, in part because they did not want to compete against slave labor. By 1860, the North and the South had developed into two very different regions. Divergent social, economic, and political points of view, dating from colonial times, gradually drove the two sections farther and farther apart. Each tried to impose its point of view on the country as a whole. Although compromises had kept the Union together for many years, in 1860 the situation was explosive. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president was viewed by the South as a threat to slavery and ignited the war.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second of the three S’s that caused the civil war was sectionalism. During the first half of the 19th century, economic differences between the regions increased. By 1860 cotton was the chief crop of the South, and it represented 57 percent of all U.S. exports. The profitability of cotton, known as King Cotton, completed the South’s dependence on the plantation system and its essential component, slavery. The North was by then firmly establi... ...al debates. As the 19th century closed, they faced a rigidly segregated life in the South and hostility across most of the North. Despite the destruction, the war did settle the question of secession. Since 1861 no state has seriously considered withdrawing from the Union. In addition, the war brought slavery to an end. After the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation, there was widespread acceptance of the fact that Union victory would mean general emancipation. Since the proclamation was a war measure that might be held unconstitutional after the war, the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, which abolished slavery, was passed by both houses of Congress early in 1865. It was ratified by three-fourths of the states and was formally proclaimed in effect on December 18, 1865.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The war also set the South back at least a generation in industry and agriculture. The invading armies devastated factories and farms. The labor system fell into chaos. Not until the 20th century did the South recover fully from the economic effects of the war. In contrast, the North forged ahead with the building of a modern industrial state.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Hydrogen Essays -- essays research papers

Since the beginning of the scientific revolution in the early nineties the mankind looks for an energy source that is clean and renewable; solution of this problem would be probably the most common thing in our life - WATER. Water consists of two chemical elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Each molecule of water consists of two hydrogen (H2) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. Chemical binding between these three atoms is very stable and strong. Therefore, the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen is under normal circumstances very intense and generates a lot of energy. 2H2 + O2 Â ® 2H2O + energy Both, hydrogen and oxygen are gases at normal temperatures and pressures and the product of this reaction is pure water, usually in its gaseous form - steam. Now it may look like hydrogen is the ideal power source that mankind is ever since looking for. More than 70 % of the Earth surface is covered by water, therefore hydrogen is renewable and unlimited. Reaction of hydrogen with oxygen generates a lot of energy and it does not have any negative output, only water. But, the respectable power hidden in water is known for more than 200 hundred years and as long scientists are trying to find a way to extract this energy, rather how to split the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen can be used to power cars, rail engines, airplanes, to produce electricity and heat. But, although the technical breakthrough in 19th and 20th century brought hydrogen into experimental use in many applications, there are still many problems to deal with. There sure is a lot of misinformation about hydrogen gone to public, so here are the basic facts about hydrogen as a power source according to the Nuts & Volts Magazine. Hydrogen on earth is not a fuel. It is only an energy carrier. Following the definition of the word fuel, fuel is a substance that is capable of delivering new energy when burning or other chemical reaction occurs. On the other hand energy carrier is a substance that is only able to move previously acquired energy from one place to another. To be accurate, water molecule is energetically very advantageous for both oxygen and hydrogen atoms and needs much energy to disintegrate it again into hydrogen and oxygen atoms, or better H2 and O2 molecules, therefore H2 and O... ...national strength of all the countries that do not have any important petroleum resources and every country could be self- sufficient with hydrogen. For example U. S. trade balance sheets show that oil imports drain 1 billion dollars from the U. S. economy every week. Important is also the "clean transport effect", thanks to an engine that does not produces any carbon dioxide or other environmentally dangerous emissions. Hydrogen could be considered to be more safe than gasoline, if safety prescriptions are not violated, in case of an accident hydrogen would quickly evaporate and ascend in the atmosphere, while gasoline would stay spilled on the ground. Hydrogen caries much more energy than gasoline, is more engine saving and also the fuel cell technology promises further development and increasing reliability of hydrogen powered cars. Following United States Department of Energy we can expect regular hydrogen-powered traffic in 20 maybe 30 years. Although, until now no hydrogen-powered cars are in production and hydrogen-powered engine is only under development hydrogen stays the main alternative fuel of the future. Hydrogen Essays -- essays research papers Since the beginning of the scientific revolution in the early nineties the mankind looks for an energy source that is clean and renewable; solution of this problem would be probably the most common thing in our life - WATER. Water consists of two chemical elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Each molecule of water consists of two hydrogen (H2) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. Chemical binding between these three atoms is very stable and strong. Therefore, the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen is under normal circumstances very intense and generates a lot of energy. 2H2 + O2 Â ® 2H2O + energy Both, hydrogen and oxygen are gases at normal temperatures and pressures and the product of this reaction is pure water, usually in its gaseous form - steam. Now it may look like hydrogen is the ideal power source that mankind is ever since looking for. More than 70 % of the Earth surface is covered by water, therefore hydrogen is renewable and unlimited. Reaction of hydrogen with oxygen generates a lot of energy and it does not have any negative output, only water. But, the respectable power hidden in water is known for more than 200 hundred years and as long scientists are trying to find a way to extract this energy, rather how to split the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen can be used to power cars, rail engines, airplanes, to produce electricity and heat. But, although the technical breakthrough in 19th and 20th century brought hydrogen into experimental use in many applications, there are still many problems to deal with. There sure is a lot of misinformation about hydrogen gone to public, so here are the basic facts about hydrogen as a power source according to the Nuts & Volts Magazine. Hydrogen on earth is not a fuel. It is only an energy carrier. Following the definition of the word fuel, fuel is a substance that is capable of delivering new energy when burning or other chemical reaction occurs. On the other hand energy carrier is a substance that is only able to move previously acquired energy from one place to another. To be accurate, water molecule is energetically very advantageous for both oxygen and hydrogen atoms and needs much energy to disintegrate it again into hydrogen and oxygen atoms, or better H2 and O2 molecules, therefore H2 and O... ...national strength of all the countries that do not have any important petroleum resources and every country could be self- sufficient with hydrogen. For example U. S. trade balance sheets show that oil imports drain 1 billion dollars from the U. S. economy every week. Important is also the "clean transport effect", thanks to an engine that does not produces any carbon dioxide or other environmentally dangerous emissions. Hydrogen could be considered to be more safe than gasoline, if safety prescriptions are not violated, in case of an accident hydrogen would quickly evaporate and ascend in the atmosphere, while gasoline would stay spilled on the ground. Hydrogen caries much more energy than gasoline, is more engine saving and also the fuel cell technology promises further development and increasing reliability of hydrogen powered cars. Following United States Department of Energy we can expect regular hydrogen-powered traffic in 20 maybe 30 years. Although, until now no hydrogen-powered cars are in production and hydrogen-powered engine is only under development hydrogen stays the main alternative fuel of the future.

Cruise Tourism Industry

Cruise tourism industry is has become the most important icon of modern tourism in the 21st century. This has mainly been prompted by the changing human utilitarian demands and globalization which makes it much easier to move and interact with environment and other people. Besides, it has been boosted by vast advancement in technology that makes it easy for the people to move out within the highest considerations of safety, comfort, and precise predetermination of the expected destination.Cruise tourism industry has given the tourism total revolution making the industry to be one of the most important sectors in the world economy (Kingston, 2006). However the development and future of the industry is highly dependent on the emergent issues that directly affect the world economy as the main source of consumers for the industry, the international peace & stability especially of the destination regions, the environmental considerations for the industry, and the regions of destination. O f greater importance however, is the consumers desire to explore and experience new aspects and phenomenon different from their home settings.Besides, it forms a direct platform for effective research in different aspects of psychology, natural sciences, social interactions and technological applications (Wood, 2000). Therefore, it depicts a coterminous entity upon where vast applications can be simultaneously applied and studied with ease. Overview of the cruise industry Historical background and development of the industry The current Cruise tourism industry has a long history dating back to the late 19th century when Prinzessin Victoria Luise was finished and commissioned by Hamburg-American Line Company for Transatlantic expeditions.However, historians argue that cruise voyages have existed since the famous travel of Christopher Columbus. Though scholars have sharply been divided over the issue, a common ground appears to have been reached with re-definition of tourism and chara cterisation of its different aspects. Most of the ancient voyages were driven by desire to search for new lands and exploit them for economic gains and less concerned with need for pleasure and site seeing of the current tourism (Kingston, 2006).However, it is very clear that the modern system has directly been shaped by the historical connotations and vastly modified by advancement in technology to reflect its present situation. During the mid 20th century, intercontinental travellers largely used ships for their movement due to the resultant comfort and good experience attached to it (Abraham & Yoel, 1999). However, most of them were directly travel oriented and had less to do with tourism demands. It was due to these experiences that the current systems of massive cruise ships largely establish its basement and progress.More cruise ships specifically meant for holiday were established with greater emphasis for comfort and satisfaction being given much higher priorities (Charles & Brent, 2006). However, most of the cruise considerations were thought to be reservations for the upper class while the lower classes had no position in the same type of expeditions. The current cruise ships are fully inclusive and entirely meant for all the people as the cost adjusts downwards with the rising suppliers of the services. Organization and management Due to the high returns from the industry, massive investments have been mobilized by the different cruise industries.Unlike the previous travelling where much smaller and simpler systems operated with greater focus of transferring people from one destination to another only, the current cruise ships are organised much like float hotels with complete hospitality staff. In the Royal Caribbean International, the staffs in the ship are equal or slightly less than the number of tourists on-board. Effective coordination and management with technicians, engineers, security, and astrologists form the technical bench in the MS Libe rty of the Seas.Besides, they are well manned from the land by constant coordination with the base surveillance monitoring unit via satellite. In the Minors of the Sea, several thousand meals are several thousand meals are served at any particular sitting. The system has been equated to an ecological unit with all the systems highly interdependent and fully self sustaining with minimal external monitoring. Demand for the cruise tourism Since late 1980s, the demand for cruise tourism has strongly risen globally as different generations change the approach to tourism to become part of their lifestyle demands which sets a strong mark of achievement.Compared to the demand during the ‘rebirth' of the industry in 1980s', the demand had doubled by the year 2005. An average of 500,000 people in North America took cruises by the onset of 1980s (Zeneth, 2008). However, the industry was marred by uncertainty due to poor development of technology and lack of enough information for the ind ustry. Besides, cruising was mostly undertaken in US and Eastern Europe only with other countries being at the tender ages of developing their systems. Since then, the demand has been rising at an average rate of 8% annually and is expected to reach a total of 10 million cruises by the year 2007.This number has been projected to continue rising as more players have ventured into the market shifting the previously upper class venture consideration to an all people exercises for faster expansion of the business. By 2015, it is predicted that the number of people cruising the oceans will reach 17 million a 70% increase on the 2000 total number. According to the cruise lines international (CLIA), the demand from the people is double the current number of the cruisers but strongly restricted by location which hinders accessibility (Chris et al, 2008).The most visited region is the Caribbean with over 80% of the tourists it every year. Europe regions are also greatly visited especially al ong the Mediterranean Sea routes. However, fast demand is shifting to the Baltic land along Copenhagen, Tallinn, Stockholm, Helsinki and St. Petersburg ports. Supply of cruise tourism Arguably, the supply of Cruise Tourism has been rising very fast over the last three decades. However, the pace is considered to be a slow one compared to the level of demand by the people for the same services.As indicated earlier cruise tourism is one of the most expensive ventures in the world. Though most travellers view is as a system of get-enjoy-achievement, the underlying harmonization entails vast demands in terms of engineering, coordination and human labour management, security connotation, and international considerations of environment and related protocols. As a result, only few industries have been wiling to venture into the complicated business (Charles &Brent, 2006). This has left the field to smaller ships with much lower holding capacities to operate the lucrative business.The modern carriers are generally much bigger with massive and advanced facilities to hold and secure more consumers with higher levels of comfort during the voyage. Currently, Carnival Corporations is one of the largest cruise companies owning Princess Cruise ship, Swan Hellenic, P& O Cruises and Costa Cruises among others operating US and Europe. By 2010, the company aims at having over 100 cruise ships added to the current 200 operating in the sea. Other major operators and suppliers of the services include Royal Caribbean which is highly established in the North American region.It serves the tourists even to further destinations like Bermuda regions and the polar areas. Norwegian Cruise Lines serves most of the Europe especially along the Mediterranean sea with extension to the polar regions and the Baltic lands. Currently, cruise tourism is becoming a mass market with other major players like India, China, Japan, and Singapore establishing their cruising tourism systems to tap the fast r ising demand. In US, 1/3 of the cruise sails from the port of Miami with others sailing from Port Everglades, Port Canaveral, New York, Tampa, Galveston, and San Juan.Many of the UK cruise lines operate from Barbados (Zeneth, 2008). Economic aspects of cruise tourism Due to the high demands for the cruise services in the world, most of the countries have greatly reaped from the establishment. With the currently demand being expected to rise to 11. 9 and 5. 3 million in America and Europe respectively, World Trade Organization indicates that the sector will form a strong economic support for the individual countries by the year 2015. International Council of Cruise Lines indicates that the industry is riding a strong line of consumer demand improving the economic conditions in North America.According to Zeneth (2008), an average economic impact of the cruise industry spending is estimated at US $ 1, 523 million annually including the total consumption of the ship and passengers. Owin g to the current growth rate of the industry, the amount is expected to double as the industry becomes more vibrant and more players venture into the business. Most of the seaports where the cruise ships take off have highly developed from the business. Scholars argue that the â€Å"flavour and taste† of port cities like Miami, St.Peters burg and Barbados have fully changed to reflect the new ideals of superiority and expensive derivation. The efficiency of the services and facilities offered in these towns have greatly increased with modern aspects relating to cruise tourism improving with speed to cater for the fast growing business (Chris et al, 2008). In Australia, the Cruise industry is expected to contribute immensely to the country's economy in the next decade. Most of the industries specializing in human services provision have found special niches where they can get fast market for their products and services.Environmental aspects of cruise tourism Though this indust ry is fast growing and offering vast promises to the investors and the economy, major concerns have been cited in its application and which requires strong consideration necessary for reducing possible negative effects. Over the years, environment has become a major concern for the cruise tourism industry. Taking into consideration that most of the cruise ships are very large and hold vast numbers of people, the system is also expected to generate vast wastes and emissions into the environment as it tries to sustain them and itself (Sarah & Claudia, 2008).Most of the cruise ships are petroleum driven and consume vast quantities of fuel. This is mainly used in production of electricity used in cooking, propelling the ship and maintaining its on-board supportive systems. As a result, it releases vast emissions into the atmosphere contributing to global warming. With the current rise in production and use of large cruise ship in the world, their total contribution into the atmosphere h as been projected to surpass vehicles production by 2015.A large Cruise ship like Royal Caribbean International has been indicated to have higher capacity to produce envisions equal to to production of 1200 cars (Zeneth, 2008). Owing to the large numbers of the people involved, vast quantities of food prepared and served, supportive services like cleaning and maintenance of these ships during the voyages, they release a lot of effluents and solid wastes into the sea. Most of the petroleum effluents have high sulphur contents that easily change the properties the immediate water threatening the vast biodiversity in the cruise ship travelling lines.Cleaning and maintenance of the cruise ship involves use of chemicals that too end up in the waste stream coming from the ship. The argument that ocean water forms strong and effective dilution mediums that have high capacity to assimilate most of their wastes is totally wrong. The International Convention for the Prevention of Ship Polluti on denotes the essence of respecting the ecological integrity and sanctity necessary for harmonious coexistence of all the ecosystems. During the year 2002, the massive death of Penguins in the southern polar region was attributed to ship pollution (Sarah & Claudia, 2008).Solid wastes management has also posed massive threats to the wildlife in the sea. Most of the lines along the cruise ship path ways highly littered with plastic bags and metallic cans for refreshments. Conclusion and recommendation Cruise ship industry has been growing at a tremendous rate since mid 20th century. This has been caused by the fast rising demand and opening up of the industry to all the people as opposed to the prior social classes consideration. As a result more players and investors have entered into the industry opening its lager contribution to the world economy.Arguably, the last two decades have seen US and Europe dominate the world cruise market with large percentage. However, other players fr om developing countries have effectively come up to participate in fast growing sector. Cruise tourism holds the key to the future of tourism industry as people change their consumerism patterns for different services (David & Richard, 2008). However, the industry should address issues relating to its negative impacts especially to the environment.Most importantly, the company owners should establish better ships that have higher fuel combustion efficiency in order to reduce the overall emissions to the atmosphere. Besides, liquid and solid waste treatment systems should also be installed to reduce their poisonous nature to the marine environment along the routes that these cruise ships follow. Reference list Abraham, P. & Yoel, M. (1999). Consumer behaviour in travel and tourism. Bonn: Haworth Press. Chris, C. , John, F. , Stephen, W. & David, G. (2008). Tourism: Principles and Practice. Geneva: Pearson Education. Charles, R. &Brent, R. (2006).Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philos ophies. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Kingston, R. (2006). Cruise Ship Tourism. New York: CABI. David, J. & Richard, S. (2008). Tourism and Development in the Developing World. London: R outledge publishing press. Sarah, V. & Claudia, C. (2008). Water Pollution Issues and Developments. Brussels: Nova Publishers. Wood, R. (2000) ‘Caribbean cruise tourism: globalization at sea', Annals of Tourism Research, 27(2), 345-70 Zeneth, P. (2008). Tourism development: Analytical consideration of Cruise tourism industry, Journal of tourism management, 29(41): 401-469

Orange is the New Black Essay

Piper Kerman is a Smith College graduate who is serving thirteen months in prison, from 2004 to 2005, for a drug trafficking and money laundering crime she committed nearly ten years before. For most of her entire stay Piper is placed in a minimum-security prison in Danbury, Connecticut. I am from Avon, Connecticut so because her story was so close to home it immediately struck me as interesting. Her experience is eye opening, and as the book progresses you can see a slight transformation from a â€Å"normal† person to a hardened convict. Pipers book, Orange is the New Black, gives insight into the realities of women’s minimum-security prisons in the United States and how the criminal justice system works today. Which, as we find out, can be a long and frustrating process. While it seems a bit absurd that Piper is being locked away for a crime committed ten years ago, I do think it is justified. What she did was illegal and when you break the laws you go to jail. That being said, I can understand why one would think that this was not justified for two reasons, the first being the fact that she committed her drug trafficking and money laundering crime ten years ago. This may be true, but that doesn’t mean it was wrong, you still need to be punished for your actions. The second reason this would be seen as unfair is because she was young and stupid when she did it. This I do not think is an excuse at all because that does not exclude her from knowing what she was doing and knowing it was wrong. I want to add though, while I agree that the punishment for her crimes were justified, as in the prison sentence, I do not think it was fair that the whole process took that long in general. To make an accurate assessment, though, I think that you have to l ook at the goals of punishment and see if each goal was met as well. When thinking about the goals of punishment the first that comes to mind is retribution. This is punishment based on a perceived need for vengeance, or that people should receive what they deserve. If you work hard you are  rewarded and if you break the rules you get punished, therefore Piper has to payback for what she did. In this case it is hard to decide if Piper received a fair punishment. When she got charged with money laundering she was helping an organization operate. Even if she didn’t know the full consequences of her actions, she knew that is was wrong. The drug organization was not only using it to support its buying of drugs, but it could also have been doing many other horrible things. Although she says she had no idea what was happening with the money or how it was being used, we have to remember that this is only her side of the story and that the judge ruling on her case has so many liars that would say the same thing. Because the punishment was from so long ago it seems like it snuck up on her and was unfair, but I feel that if she had been punished right after her crime was committed everyone would not feel as bad about it. I feel that the retribution she received was justified for her actions, even if they were ten years ago. The second goal of punishment is incapacitation. The purpose of this is to separate offenders from their community as to reduce their ability to commit certain crimes. In this case, I do not think that this goal was accomplished. Although Piper had committed a crime, she was not going to commit any more; she had given that life up and was trying to move on. The reason for incapacitation is if you think someone will commit a crime again that could negatively affect the community. As I said, not only was Piper moving on from her other life, she was making great steps to become a mature adult, from starting a relationship to thinking hard about her future. I want to point out the difference between retribution and incapacitation and why I agree with one and not the other. I think that Piper should have been punished for what she did, that is retribution. On the other hand, I do not think that Piper was a threat to her community, and that there was not a chance she would do it again. So in the sense while I do agree that it was necessary as a punishment, I do not think that it was necessary to stop her from committing another crime again. Deterrence is the third goal of punishment and is compatible with incapacitation. Deterrence is the threat of punishment to convince people  that the crime or activity they are committing is not worth it. There are two types of deterrence in my opinion and one of them was successful while the other was not. In Pipers case, while she did think about the fact that when she was smuggling the money over she might get caught, it did not deter her from saying no. Piper still decided that she would drug traffic and money launder so obviously the idea of going to prison did not affect her decision. So, in this case, I would say that no, under this meaning deterrence was not met. On the other hand, another form of deterrence is the idea that you can reduce the amount of repeat offenders coming back again and again. Under this definition I believe that in Pipers case this deterrence was effective. Although when she committed the crime the first time she was not thinking about the punishment at all really. Now, she can’t get the thought of prison out of her head for a day, let alone if she was going to do something illegal. Her experience was so life changing it will affect the way she thinks and acts from the time she gets out, and I would consider that a success as far as deterrence. The fourth and final goal of punishment is rehabilitation, or the idea that you can change the way an offender thinks and behaves into a more positive form. There are many different forms of rehabilitation but most focus on the reduction of criminal offences through support and help from the community. The hope being that the offender will change their attitude toward what they have done and make them see that the behavior was wrong. This is where I feel there was a major problem with Pipers experience. The entire time I was reading the book I was waiting for her to explain how sad she was that she had committed the crime or that she realized it was wrong. Instead of her saying these things, the only thing I heard was the fact that she thought it was ridiculous for her to be here for so long, or that most of the people in the camp didn’t deserve to be in for what they did. While she was locked up she was thinking and writing, but it was not about how she realized that what she had done was wrong, but instead it was how badly she missed everyone she loved. She did not mention the fact that she realized her wrong doing and that if she hadn’t had of done those things, so long ago, that she never would have been in this situation, instead she complained that her sentence was unfair and that she was a nice lady who didn’t deserve this. This is the problem I have with the criminal justice system now a days. It  seems as if most of the ladies in the prison with Piper were doing the same thing, waiting to get out of jail. These people are not thinking about what they did to get into these situations, trying to better themselves and getting prepared for the outside world. Instead it seemed as if they were only concerned with making their time in prison as nice as possible and in a sense trying to forget why they are there in the first place. They focused on making their time in prison more comfortable and finding out ways to get what they wanted while breaking the rules. I think that there are different reasons for this and they are not all the prisoners fault. One of the major problems was that while Danbury had some working programs, there were just not enough classrooms that were functional, or teachers, to be effective. Release back into the community is an important step that needs to be done in the right steps to succeed. On the other hand, in my opinion, the prisoner is in for doing something wrong and being punished. If they had not committed the crime they would not be taken away from their ch ances to be successful in the world. While it may seem tough, it is just another form of privileges being taken away, if they had not committed the crime it would never have happened. So, in the end, Pipers stay was justified in my opinion and she had it coming to her in the end, you cannot expect to do something illegal and get away with it. I believe that throughout the book, while certain aspects of punishment were touched upon, not all were met. While she gave retribution (ten years later), and next time will defiantly be deterred, I’m not to sure how successful the rehabilitation part was or if the incapacitation was necessary. I do think that it is necessary to point out though that Pipers case is not how it is in a lot of cases due to the fact that she has a loving husband and strong family ties. In the end though, Piper had a life changing experience that will affect her for the rest of her life, from her experiences in prison to her work on the board of Women’s Prison Association.